Anselm of Canterbury Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Anselm of Canterbury - Essay Example God â€Å"cannot be even thought of as not existing† (Anselm, 360). Having made the existence of God a given, Anselm defines God as the greatest thing that can be thought of. God is superlative, because the human mind, created by God, cannot conceive of anything greater than its creator, who exists eternally throughout the ages. The rest of his argument proceeds from this definition. If the perfection of God is not accepted, Anselm’s argument does not hold. God exists in understanding, because the concept of God as â€Å"something than which nothing greater than be thought of† can be understood. Something which exists in reality is greater than something which exists only in understanding. If God exists only in understanding, he cannot be the greatest. Since Anselm has established that God is the greatest, and nothing can be greater than God, if follows that God must exist in reality. Therefore, Anselm’s conception of God as the greatest, as Perfect, is the very foundation of his argument for God’s existence. If Anselm’s belief in the ‘Perfect God’ is discarded, his ‘proof’ of God’s existence must be discarded along with

Light in August Essay Example for Free

Light in August Essay William Faulkner’s celebrated novel Light in August says the tale of an orphan Joe Christmas, who has an unknown or doubtful ancestry who considers himself to be part-black. The novel includes excellent themes that involve issues of gender, race, community and religion. The capture of the racist identity and the portrayal of Calvinistic religion are the main features of the novel. Light in August is one of the best works of William Faulkner. The story starts with Lena Grove, a helpless pregnant girl (from Alabama) who set out of her house in search of her unborn baby’s father Lucas Burch. Lucas Burch had actually escaped from Lena so that he need not bear the burden of fatherhood. Lena’s hunting for Lucas Burch make her reach another man with the same name Byron Bunch. He was a simple man who makes friendship with Lena and later falls in love with her. Byron was kindhearted and provided Lena with home and security that the actual Byron Bunch (the child’s father) could not provide. After that we can see Byron narrating his feelings for Lena to the former Presbyterian minister Rev. Gail Hightower who was pushed to withdraw from his ministry as his wife committed suicide. In the middle of this strange story between Lena Grove and Lucas Burch, there appears Joe Christmas the roommate of Lucas Burch. He was an orphan working in the planing mill like Byron Bunch. The word ‘Christmas’ was added to his name as it was on the day of Christmas that he reached the orphanage. Christmas was also not sure about his ancestry as he wandered across in search of his lineage; a voyage for self-discovery. Christmas’ journey led him to Jefferson, Mississippi where he falls in a dangerous relation with Joanna Burden spinsterish civil rights activist. This affair led him to grave destruction. The most interesting theme of Light in August is the Southern issue with racial identity. Joe is mistreated and humiliated as people suspect that he has a black ancestry. They never him the way they treat white people (Dondlinger, 98-125). We can find in Light in August that majority of the characters are influenced by the notion of race disparity. For example, Joanna Burden, Joe Christmas, Doc Hines, Nathaniel Burde and lastly Percy Grimm are some or the other way influenced by the concept of race (Towner, 45-65). Some of the characters become victims of the senseless racial classification and suffer. Others who are out of this threat believe that there is nothing wrong in treating blacks inhumanly on the basis of racial difference. Racial discrimination is quite acceptable for them (Dondlinger, 98-125). For example The Jefferson sheriff, Watt Kennedy appears to be a decent man. However we can see him punishing a randomly chosen black person in an unwanted investigation (appeared unwanted at first). Similarly several other characters are found to be under the grip of the notion of race. Gender also plays a crucial role in the novel Light in August. Male-female identity and relations is an important topic. For example, we can find Joe being hostile to women. Lena’s baby’s father Lucas Burch also ran away from his pregnant wife; he was also fleeing away from women. Byron Bunch also did not have any plans to marry and was living a lonely life till Lena comes. He was adjusting his life in such a way that he could continue living alone. Rev. Gail Hightower also do not have a good fellowship with women as he led his wife to suicide. Another character Joanna Burden does not even marry. However we can find that the author never attempts to contrast the lonely life of these unfortunate characters with any happy or satisfied normal family or love relationships until the novel reaches the last chapter. We can see that the marriage of Hines and McEachern was also not a happy one. Moreover the Armstids also do not appear to have any love among them. Finally it appears to come to a happy end when Byron Bunch moves away with Lena Grove. But disappointment suddenly comes in she refuses him to share her bed. That relation also seems to be failure. The only relationship that appears to be happy is the relationship of the furniture dealer and his wife. They only had a relationship that had any trace of happiness or satisfaction.

Children Born Into Families With Mental Illness Social Work Essay

Children Born Into Families With Mental Illness Social Work Essay With an apparent increase in the number of children born to parents experiencing mental illness many issues have been raised concerning parenting capacity and the welfare and development of these children. This has many implications for social work practice in both Childrens Teams and Community Mental Health Teams and also for future policy development and service provision. Within this dissertation it is my intention to explore that the mentally ill are indeed capable of parenting their children safely and effectively and attempt to disprove the suggestion that mentally ill parents are unsafe and incapable. Adults with mental health problems are one of the most excluded groups in society, however many are also parents and may need support to care for their children safely (Garley et al 1997). This means that service provision must encompass the needs of both parents and their children and assessments must take into account the needs of both these vulnerable groups. The human cost for parents with mental ill health is in attempting to parent their children in the face of stigma and adversities. Social Workers do not only need to support these parents but they also need to challenge the stigmas and adversities perpetuated by society. Society has perceptions of people with mental illness and this is largely negative, with the greatest misunderstandings being the perceptions of the more severe mental health conditions. Severe mental health conditions such as schizophrenia although not as prevalent as the depressive disorders are thought to affect one in two hundred adults each year (Mental Health and Social Exclusion Report 2004) and these conditions have a wider impact on the lives of the family, friends and community. It is widely recognised that one in four people of working age experience mental ill health at some point in their life, (Office for National Statistics 2008) but these problems can present in a variety of ways, depending upon the individual and their circumstances. What perhaps is most important to consider is how the person presents in relation to what is normal for them. Any great changes in mood or behaviour can be important indicators of deterioration in mental health, but it is clear that it would be dangerous to view this in isolation. It is therefore important to recognise that we all may experience various degrees of mental difficulty at some point in our lifetime. People with good mental health can; develop emotionally, creatively, intellectually and spiritually. They are able to initiate, develop and sustain mutually satisfying personal relationships; they can face problems, resolve and learn from them. They can be confident and assertive, are aware of others and have an ability to empathise; they can use and enjoy fun as well as laugh at themselves and the world. Good mental health is not something we have, but something that we do to take care of ourselves and value who we are as people (www.pmhcwn.org). However people experiencing mental illness do not always possess these attributes therefore need support to achieve wellness. To make the distinction between people who have children and then develop a mental illness or those who have a diagnosed condition before they have children the focus will be on the experiences of those people with mental illness who become parents and so have already been living with their condition or diagnosis. The aim of my dissertation will be to explore these issues by critically examining current research, practice, service provision and policy. This will be in the form of a literature based review where I want to question whether people with mental health issues can indeed parent their children safely. Firstly the Methodology used to assimilate the research will be examined with an explanation of the methods selected. Chapter One will define mental health, then focus on the historical context, policy and legislation and on the theories and approaches to ways of working considering the challenges that the social workforce face in supporting service users with mental health needs. Chapter Two will explore the experience of those parents with mental health problems; consider the capacity of people with mental health problems and the experiences of children of the mentally ill. This will be considered, from both a childs and a parents perspective. Chapter Three will focus on the main theme s to emerge from my research which are stigma, risk, resilience and attachment. The Results and Findings will be explored which will discuss the findings and present an overview of common themes which have emerged. The Conclusion will then draw together all the information gathered. Methodology When approaching this dissertation the decision was made to conduct a literature review of the research currently available. This was because mental health is an area of interest and combined with a placement in a childrens team, where it became obvious that many parents experience mental health issues it was an opportunity to combine the two areas. Previously the author has worked in a statutory provision which was a service supporting children and young people experiencing mental health issues and also had a placement in a community mental health team. All of these experiences have made the author inquisitive to the difficulties that parents encounter when attempting to take care of their children and the views of services of their abilities to do so. The search strategy used to locate appropriate material was to consider the various terms used when thinking about parental mental illness. Therefore a decision was made to search for the following terms; parental mental illness, children living with the mental illness of parents and capacity of parents with mental illness. When further considering what needed to be learnt, the terms; risk of children with mentally ill parents and resilience of children with mentally ill parents were then explored as were attachment of mentally ill parents and stigma and mental health. The concentration was on English speaking countries and so research was drawn together from Great Britain, Ireland, The United States of America and Australia. This was felt to be the most pertinent approach, as to broaden the search to further countries could create too much information and a difficulty in assimilating the research. Various databases were searched which included; Science Direct, Jstor and SwetsWise. T he British Journal of Psychology, The British Journal of Social Work and Social Care Institute for Excellence proved to be invaluable as did the various mental health websites such as MIND. Government reports and Department of Health documentation added a further breadth to the research which was drawn together. This search produced a significant number of journal articles in the area which were appropriate for the purpose, and coupled with mental health websites and books on parenting capacity a rich variety of material was gathered. The information further obtained from legislation and policy documentation was also invaluable. If there had been the time to explore this area in further detail it would have been suitable to have conducted a focus group amongst service users within the mental ill health community. From the research available it is clear that this research method was considered to be the most rewarding as service users felt the least threatened by the process (Garley et al 1997). It also garnered the most honesty from the participants and clarity of their experiences. They had felt safe in the knowledge that their recounting of their experiences would not be judged and their parenting abilities would be afforded due respect. Another option could possibly have been to send out questionnaires to ascertain the level of support service users felt they were receiving from community mental health teams and childrens services. However this method may not have produced such a wealth of results as it would not have been a face to face intervention. When viewing research, non face to face approaches have sometimes not been as well responded to by prospective participants. Chapter One This chapter will focus on how mental illness is defined; look at the historical context of mental illness service provision, the legislation and policy documentation and approaches and theories to ways of working. Defining Mental Illness Mental illness can affect one in four adults of working age at some point in their life, according to the World Health Foundation (2001). This demonstrates how prevalent mental illness is within our communities and how anyone can be affected by it at some point in their lifetime. However mental illness is defined by society in a variety of ways; there is the legal definition, clinical definitions and popular public misconceptions. This sections aim is to identify the three definitions of mental illness when considering the legal, clinical and public meanings. Mental disorder is defined in a legal context as arrested or incomplete development of mind, psychopathic disorder or any other disorder or disability of the mind (www.yourrights.org.uk). There are various definitions of mental health and amongst these the Mental Health Act 1983 offers three different definitions for mental disorder: severe mental impairment, which is defined as a state of arrested or incomplete development of mind which includes severe impairment of intelligence and social functioning and is associated with abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct on the part of the person concerned (Mental Health Act 1983, Part 1). Mental impairment, which is defined as a state of arrested or incomplete development of mind (not amounting to a severe mental impairment) which includes severe impairment of intelligence and social functioning and is associated with abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct on the part of the person concerned ( MHA 1983, P art 1). Then psychopathic disorder which is defined as a persistent disorder or disability of mind (whether or not including significant impairment of intelligence) which results in abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct on the part of the person concerned ( MHA 1983, Part 1). However the 2007 Mental Health Act amendments changes the way the 1983 act defines mental disorder, so that a single definition applies throughout and abolishes references to categories of disorder( MHA 2007) The clinical definition comes from ICD-10, which is the International Classification of Diseases which was approved by the forty-third World Health Assembly in May 1990 and came into use in World Health Organisation member countries as from 1994. It is the international model for diagnostic categorisation of all general epidemiological conditions and health management. Within the ICD-10 there is classification of mental illness and mental disorders and this is used by clinicians to diagnose and therefore treat those people with mental illness. The foremost definition used is that any of various psychiatric conditions, usually characterised by impairment of an individuals normal cognitive, emotional, or behavioural functioning, and caused by physiological or psychosocial factors (ICD-10 Chapter V). When considering the public perceptions of mental illness, what is clear are the many negative perceptions of mental illnesses and disorders. The stigma that goes along with being labelled as having a mental illness can have far reaching consequences and needs to be challenged as a social injustice for this group (Cleaver et al 1999). Stigma is largely a social construct, in that society reacts negatively as a result of being fed sensationalist stories by the media. The Mental Health Knowledge Centre at the Institute of Psychiatry within the Maudsley Clinic London aims to promote change in public perception by addressing attitudes towards mental health conditions. The aim is that this will be achieved through ongoing public engagement activities and providing information for friends, families and carers of those with mental illness. Also initiatives such as World Mental Health Day endeavour to change public perceptions by bringing the conditions into the public arena. People experiencing mental disorders are often excluded from some societal norms due to a lack of knowledge or fear on behalf of the community as the Mental Health and Social Exclusion Report of 2004 puts this Mental health problems can be both a cause and a consequence of social exclusion (Mental Health and Social Exclusion Report 2004 p11). What is known is that mental health problems can affect anyone at any point in their life. However the debates around the differing definitions of mental health are important to discuss in relation to exploring the issues for people with mental health problems who are also parents. Stereotypical views of people with mental illness are that they are violent, unstable, and irrational and therefore their abilities to parent are questionable. These perceptions have been perpetuated by an ignorant society and need to be challenged. The Office for National Statistics has collected data to illustrate the prevalence of common mental health problems in the general population (see fig 1). Figure 1: Office for National Statistics (2000) Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. According to the Office for National Statistics the average age of early onset psychosis is twenty-two, but up to half of mental health problems start in childhood. For men, the age at which common mental health problems peak is forty-five to forty-nine years and for women fifty-fifty-four years. When looking at the statistics in terms of gender prevalence, women experience higher rates of problems than men and their experiences tend to last longer with greater occurrences of relapse. However what is known is that young men aged twenty-five to thirty-four are the highest risk group for suicide (Office for National Statistics 2000). Mental health illness is referred to in a variety of ways in the literature and research; therefore for the purposes of this paper, mental illness, mental ill health and mental health problems will be used interchangeably with the main emphasis being placed on the conditions of schizophrenia and psychosis rather than the depressive conditions.    Schizophrenia is a diagnosis given to some people who are experiencing severely disrupted beliefs and experiences.  Ã‚  During an episode, a persons experience and interpretation of the outside world is disrupted. They may experience hallucinations, lose touch with reality or see or hear things that are not there and act in unusual ways. An episode of schizophrenia can last for several weeks and can be very frightening (www.rethink.org). An episode of psychosis can be experienced in much the same way. However to appreciate contemporary understanding of mental illness, the historical context needs to be explained and how parents have been viewed by society. Historical Context Historically those individuals who experience mental illness may be treated for their condition by their local General Practitioner in the local community, however those individuals who require more intensive interventions may fall under the support of The Mental Health Act 1983. Following years of the institutionalisation of individuals with mental health disorders came the Mental Health Act 1983, which made provision for these people to be supported in the community. This important legislation made provision for the safety and well being of those people experiencing mental distress. For the first time, mental illness was recognised as a condition that could be managed in the community and newly formed community mental health teams would be the people to assist. The Mental Health Act 1983 made provision for individuals needing treatment to be detained under section, which meant that they could be legally detained to ensure that appropriate treatment was administered either in the fo rm of therapeutic intervention and or medication. This act was further amended in 2007, where one of the main amendments was to make provision for Community Treatment Order (CTO). This declared that a patient could be re-called for treatment in hospital if they had been discharged into the community and were not complying with the restrictions of their order. Policies imposed by local authorities must work within the guidelines of both The Mental Health Acts 1983 and 2007 and The Children Act 1989 in conjunction with the Care Programme Approach 2008. These government laws state how the care and treatment of people with mental health and the care and protection of children should be managed. A comprehensive care plan should address all the issues around the person and allow for their ability to parent by assessing their parenting capacity. Every Child Matters (2002) was one such provision developed to support children, the main duties being to cooperate and improve well-being, and to safeguard and promote the welfare of all children in England (www.everychildmatters.gov.uk ). Every Child Matters was developed following Lord Lamings report of 2002 which was implemented following Victoria Climbià ©s death in 2000. He highlighted within his report that a lack of integrative working across the different services and agencies had contributed to Victorias death. Every Child Matters legislates for improving information sharing between agencies to ensure the safety of children known to local authorities and this would be done by reducing the technical difficulties with the different interfaces used by the diverse services (ECM 2002). A huge challenge to overcome with much work still needed in this area as health, education and social services remain largely fragmented (ECM 2002). To attempt to overcome this, a common assessme nt framework was devised across services to ensure the information followed each child and reducing the necessity for duplication of information. These tools were then used to ensure that if a parent came to the attention of mental health services then the worker would be able to instantly determine if their children were also known to childrens services. Legislation and Policy Documentation The National Service Framework for Mental Health, from the Department of Health (1999) document states that local authorities have a duty to provide effective services for people with mental illnesses. Its aim is for individuals, who may or may not be parents, with a severe mental illness to be able to access and receive the range of mental health services that they need and consequently crises will be anticipated and averted. Therefore even if a parent is considered to pose a threat to their child they should be maintained with parenting support in advance. The recommendation being that there will be the integration of health and social care services with a strong emphasis on Interprofessional collaboration and this joined up working will promote the active participation of service users. The Mental Health and Social Exclusion Report of 2004 activated by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister detailed in action sixteen better support for parents and their children (Mental Health and Exclusion Report 2004 p105). This challenge was taken up by the Action Sixteen Group who would review its implementation. This body comprised of ;the Social Care Institute for Excellence, Barnardos, the Department of Health, National Children and Adolescent Mental Health Services Support Service, Family Action and the Mental Health Commission. This membership of the Action Sixteen Group brought together professionals who were dedicated to improving outcomes for parents affected by mental illness and their children. The key messages to emerge from their discussions were that the mental health services should think family (www.scie.org.uk). This would be achieved by improved awareness, sharing of information across services and the development of resources for positive practice. Action Sixteen worked together to review the existing provisions for parents with mental health needs, including the needs of mentally unwell parents who were also belonging to an ethnic minority group and or were also disabled parents. It determined that parents need to be enabled to lead fulfilling lives in the way that they chose. That sigma and discrimination must be challenged and the rights of parents must be promoted, social exclusion must be confronted through implementing evidence-based practice and getting the basics in order must be a priority (Fowler et al 2009). This means enabling mentally ill parents to have access to decent housing, advice on finance and benefits, training and employment. (Fowler et al 2009). All of this needs to be approached from an informed viewpoint and the most appropriate theories and ways of working considered. Ways of Working The challenges for the social work profession to assist mental health service users are immense, diverse and complex. When approaching work with any vulnerable service user group it is important for social workers to maintain their social work values and recommend a holistic approach to their interventions with families (GSCC codes of Practice 2002). This would mean balancing practical and emotional support, offering appropriate counselling and working in a therapeutic way to best support parents with mental health needs (Darlington et al 2005). As previously discussed parents with mental health issues may experience social exclusion or isolation and it is a challenge for social workers to support these individuals to maintain a more integrative life. They also need to be aware of the power relationship between those who provide and those who access mental health services and the disempowering consequences of being labelled a mental health service user (Williams and Keating 2000). Re search studies have shown that it is a considerable challenge for people with mental illnesses to sustain and maintain social contacts and relationships (Huxley and Thornicroft 2003). Further research into this area as to how parents with mental illnesses can be encouraged to lead a more integrative life is needed. The requirements for the social work workforce within the mental health sector are clear guidelines for working in an integrated team, with strong leadership and comprehensible policies to enable improved multi agency working. This is further challenged by maintaining and preserving the separate skill bases of each profession within a community mental health team. Community psychiatric nurses (CPN) have trained to specifically achieve a qualification, as indeed have their social work colleagues and the blurring of roles may create disquiet amongst individuals. With the new Approved Mental Health Professional (AMHP) role being made available to professionals from other disciplines this may create further challenges within multi-disciplinary working. Only those professionals trained to become a health professional have the ability to administer medication and a large part of their role in working with the mentally ill is to ensure medication compliance. However medication is best supported if it works in conjunction with therapies (www.rethink.org) and the most recognised therapy to assist with mentally unwell individuals is Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy was developed by Aaron Beck (1921- ) in the 1960s as a psychological approach to assist people in changing how they thought and felt (Beck 1975). This approach is widely recognised today as the foremost talking therapy when working with the mentally ill. Any professional will need to approach working with a mentally ill service user from an informed position. The experiences of the vast majority of people with mental health problems are that they are labelled. Labelling theory was first applied to the term mentally ill in 1966 when Thomas Scheffs book- Being Mentally Ill was published. Scheffs claim was that mental illness perceptions needed to be challenged as mental illness was a social construction. He purports that no one is deviant and no action is deviant unless society deemed it to be so and that symptoms of mental illness are regarded as violations of societal norms (Scheff 1966), so to challenge societys view of their perception of mental illness is one way to assist those with mental illness and the stigma they experience as a result of labelling. When considering a parent with mental illness and the approaches to working with these individuals a holistic approach would appear to be the most pertinent to consider appropriate. This means taking into account the persons physical and spiritual health as well as their mental health needs (Hunt 2009). The Care Programme Approach is now recognised as the best way to do this. The Care Programme Approach 2008 or CPA as it is referred to within services is a way of developing a plan of work individualised to each persons needs. The Care Programme Approach has four main elements as defined in Building Bridges: A guide to arrangements for inter-agency working for the care and protection of severely mentally ill people (DoH 1995 p1). It works by assessing a persons needs and then developing a plan in response to those needs; the plan is then implemented and reviewed regularly to ensure that it is continuing to meet the individuals needs (www.dh.gov.uk). The latest development in policy implementation is New Horizons; a government program of action which has been launched to improve the mental well-being of people in England and drive up the quality of mental health care. New Horizons is a comprehensive initiative that will be delivered by local government, the voluntary sector and professionals with an aim of creating a society that values mental health. This will be achieved by ensuring the foundations of good mental health begin in childhood and continue through the lifespan, emphasising the importance of prevention as well as treatment and recovery (New Horizons 2009). All professionals will be encouraged to identify children whose parents may be experiencing difficulties and signpost them to appropriate services. The next chapter will consider how policy and legislation works in supporting parents with mental ill health by considering their experiences, how their capacity is measured and how their children view both their parents illness and treatment. Chapter Two This chapter will focus on the experiences of parents with mental health problems, their ability to parent, their parenting capacity and the experiences of children of the mentally ill. The numbers of parents who experience mental health issues is not clear but it is estimated that in excess of thirty per cent of the population may be affected. Experience of Parents with Mental Health Problems When considering the research available, what is clear is that the focus has been mainly on the female experience as women were found to be the main caregivers, Nicholson et al (1998). In a study, using focus groups with mothers, to explore the problems they faced as a result of their mental illnesses Nicholson et al concluded that the experiences these mothers recounted detailed their concerns, their struggles and their successes (Nicholson et al 1998 p 638). They discussed the anxiety of stigma and the worry of having their children removed by social services as well as the everyday struggles of looking after children (Nicholson et al 1998). In a study, to explore the experiences of new mothers Mowbray et al (1995) found that motherhood was a role of great significance for many women with mental health problems. The mothers in their study articulated just how important the experience of being a mother was to them, the joy that it brought for them and the growth in personal development it produced (Mowbray et al 1995). What is known is that parenting is viewed by society as being highly valued and although this is a common thread to all societies and cultures, most perceptions are that parents with mental illness are viewed negatively, (Mowbray et al 1995). Furthermore as parents with mental health problems are de-valued by society and their parenting capacities and abilities are questioned they fear that their children will be removed from their care therefore they avoid contact with social services even if they are aware they need support. This all adds to the stress that parents experience in coping with their mental i llness and the demands of parenting. Nicholson et al (1998) found that parents felt unable to ask for the support they may need due to the fear that social services would remove their children from their care. This was a great fear for the mothers in this study but further studies have also corroborated this, for example Cleaver et al (1998) reviewed data from research and discovered that forty- two per cent of children who were initially referred to child protection services following an assessment of their parent(s) mental health became subject to care proceedings. This indicates an equal fear on behalf of the professionals involved with parents with mental ill health, the need to protect balanced against the needs of the parent to maintain normal family life. Parents have therefore identified that they will be viewed as flawed by society and perhaps incapable of fulfilling one of societys most treasured roles and have their parenting abilities and capacity questioned (Ackerson 20 03). Parenting Capacity Parents with mental illness may have difficulty in caring for their children because they feel a need to focus on their own needs or are unable to recognise their childrens needs and this can impact on their parenting capacity. Other influences can also impact such as relationship breakdown, poverty, unemployment and social exclusion. There is a real difficulty in attempting to establish just how many parents have a diagnosis of schizophrenia or psychosis although it is estimated that as many as nine million adults may have a mental health need (www.family-action.org.uk ) Many of these illnesses go undetected with some parents refusing to acknowledge that they have a problem for fear of the consequences for their children (Beardslee et al 1983). For many parents the greatest fear being the removal of their children by social services. This is largely due to much of the current service provision being aimed at protecting children considered to be at risk from harm rather than supporting mentally ill parents to overcome the disabilities that hinder their parenting role. This could be better supported by intervention before a risk to the child becomes apparent (Kearney et al 2003). This is in direct conflict with the Children Act 1989, which recommends that wherever possible parents should be supported to care for th eir own children at home. This all creates a culture of fear for parents, as they cannot be honest about what they are experiencing as this may result in the removal of their children. However what is known is that there is a significant number of parents whose children are known to social services have a mental health problem (Crossing Bridges 1998). Having a mental illness can impact on the parents ability to care for their children in a variety of ways such as; being unable to provide food, clothing, shelter and warmth or indeed be able to keep their children safe from harm (White et al 1995). However if a parent makes what is perceived to be an unwise or eccentric decision this does not necessarily mean that they are lacking in capacity (Mental Capacity Act 2005). All parents are expected to provide; a safe physical and a secure emotional environment for their children, they are expected to demonstrate appropriate behaviour and provide opportunitie

Preparation Of Oxalate Complexes Of Iron Biology Essay

Preparation Of Oxalate Complexes Of Iron Biology Essay To prepare two oxalate complexes of iron namely, Potassium Trioxalatoferrate Trihydrate and Iron Oxalate and to analyse the products for iron and oxalate respectively. One of the properties known to be characterised by transition metals such as iron is complex ion formation since they are able to form stable complexes. In this experiment, two complex of iron are being formed with the oxalate ion being the common ligand in both. Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate and Iron (II) Oxalate are the two complexes being formed and are represented by the following chemical structures: Figure 1: Chemical structures of Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate and Iron (II) Oxalate respectively. The oxalate ion, apart from acting as a Lewis base can be referred to as a bidentate ligand since an oxalate ion can donates two pairs of electrons (one from each oxygen) to the iron (III) or Iron (II) cation acting as a Lewis acid from two oxygen atoms as can be seen in figure 1 above. Iron can form a variety of complexes with most of them having an octahedral geometry. In this experiment, the Iron (II) oxalate formed is characterised by an Fe2+ as the central metal cation. This is then oxidised to Fe3+ in order to synthesise the Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate complex characterised by an Fe3+ as the central metal cation. Certain complexes such as the Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate complex are unstable to light and therefore they are said to be photosensitive. For this reason, it is a must to store such a complexes under dark conditions in order to prevent the reduction of the Fe3+ ion back to the Fe2+ ion. The amount of oxalate within a complex can be determined using titrimetric analysis. Potassium permanganate is titrated with the oxalate ion and the amount of oxalate can be determined through this redox titration. No indicator is necessary in such a titration due to the fact that the endpoint is characterised by a faint pink colour resulting from the fact that at the end point, excess un reacted permanganate ions are present in the solution since all the oxalate ions would have been consumed. The amount of iron in a complex on the other hand can be analysed following the addition of zinc to the complex solution followed by heating. Once this is carried out, the resulting solutions can be treated with potassium permanganate in a redox titration as described previously above and hence, the amount of iron in a complex can be determined. In this experiment, heating is involved in the redox titrations due to the fact that since the reaction is rather slow at room temperature, in order for one to observe a quick colour change at the end point, the solution needs to be heated to around 60oC. Method Chemicals used Ferrous ammonium sulphate Hydrogen peroxide Sulfuric acid Ethanol Oxalic acid Zinc Ferrous oxalate Potassium permanganate Potassium oxalate Apparatus used Buchner funnel Heating mantle Burette Weighing boat Thermometer Filter paper Magnetic stirrer Glass wool Analytical balance Measuring cylinder Procedure Part a Preparation of Iron (II) oxalate 15g of ferrous ammonium sulphate were dissolved in 50mL warm water which had been acidified with 1mL 2M sulfuric acid. To this, a solution of 10% 75mL oxalic acid was added with rapid stirring. The mixture was gently heated until its boiling point was reached and the yellow precipitate of ferrous oxalate formed was allowed to settle. The precipitate was removed by filtration on a Buchner funnel and washed thourally with hot water followed by acetone. The product was allowed to dry on a funnel under suction and was then weighed. Part B Preparation of Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate. 3.25g of ferrous oxalate was suspended in a warm solution of (5g in 15mL water) potassium oxalate. To this, 15mL 20 vol. Hydrogen peroxide was added from a burette whilst the solution was stirred continuously and the temperature was maintained at 40oC. The solution contained a precipitate of ferric hydroxide and this was removed by heating the solution to its boiling point and adding 10mL 10% oxalic acid. Further small amounts of oxalic acid was added drop wise until the precipitate just dissolved. The hot solution was filtered and 15mL ethanol was added to the filtrate in order to re dissolve any crystals that formed by gentle heating. The solution was placed in a dark cupboard to crystallize since the product formed was photosensitive. The crystals were collected by filtration on a Buchner funnel and later washed with an equivolume mixture of ethanol and water followed by acetone. The crystals were then dried and weighed. Part C The analysis of the products for Iron and Oxalate For Iron (II) oxalate: 0.3g of oxalate were dissolved in 25mL 2M sulfuric acid and the solution was heated to 60oC and titrated with 0.2M standard potassium permanganate solution until the first permanganate pink colour was observed. 2g of zinc dust was added and the solution was boiled for 25 minutes. The solution was filtered through glass wool and the residual zinc was washed with 2M sulfuric acid. The washings were added to the filtrate and the solution was titrated with standard potassium permanganate. The percentages of iron, oxalate and water of recrystalisation in the product were determined and hence, the empirical formula could be derived. For Potassium trioxalatoferrate (III) trihydrate: 0.2g of Potassium trioxalatoferrate (III) trihydrate were dissolved in 25mL 2M sulfuric acid and titrated with 0.02M permanganate. The solution was treated with zinc dust and re-titrated with permanganate as described in the analysis of Iron (II) oxalate above. The percentages of iron and oxalate in the complex were determined and this was compared to the theoretical value. Precautions: It was made sure that in the preparation of Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate, ethanol was added to the filtrate in order to re dissolve any crystals that formed by gentle heating. It was made sure that in the preparation of Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate, the solution was placed in a dark cupboard to crystallize since the product formed was photosensitive. It was made sure that for the preparation of Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate, the temperature was maintained at 40oC to prevent hydrogen peroxide decomposition. Observations: Ferrous (II) oxalate had a yellow precipitate and at the end a yellow powder was obtained. The endpoint of the redox titrimetric titration was marked by a faint pink colouration. Ferric hydroxide had a brown precipitate which turned into a green solution upon excess oxalic acid was added. Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate formed was in the form of green crystals. 3. Results and Calculations Results: Part A: Ferrous ammonium sulphate weighed 15.042g 10% oxalic acid measured 75mL Mass of ferrous (II) oxalate obtained 5.586g Part B: Ferrous (II) oxalate used 3.269g Potassium oxalate used 5.008g Mass of Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate obtained 2.205g Part C: Ferrous (II) oxalate used 0.320g Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate used 0.200g Zinc used 2g Volume of permanganate required in the redox titration between iron (II) oxalate and permanganate 49.5mL Volume of permanganate required in the redox titration between iron (II) oxalate and permanganate in the presence of zinc 15.50mL Volume of permanganate required in the redox titration between Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate and permanganate 24.50mL Volume of permanganate required in the redox titration between Potassium Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate and permanganate in the presence of zinc 4.00mL Calculations: Analysis of products for Iron Oxalate for Iron(II) oxalate The equations taking place in the reaction are: 2MnO4- (aq) + 5C2O42- (aq) + 16H+ (aq) Æ’Â   2Mn2+ (aq) + 10CO2 (g) + 8H2O (l) 5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ Æ’Â   5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + H2O Moles permanganate reacting with oxalate and iron = Concentration of permanganate x Volume of permanganate required: Moles permanganate = 0.02 x (49.50 / 1000) Moles permanganate = 0.00099 moles Moles permanganate reacting with iron (II) = Concentration of permanganate x Volume of permanganate required: Moles permanganate = 0.02 x (15.5 / 1000) Moles permanganate = 0.00031 moles Therefore, moles of permanganate reacting with the oxalate ions = Total number of moles Number of moles of permanganate reacting with iron. 0.00099 0.00031 = 0.00068 moles From the stoichiometry of the equation it is observed that 2 moles of permanganate react with 5 moles of oxalate, thus: Moles of oxalate = 5/2 (0.00068) = 0.0017 moles Grams of oxalate = number of moles x mass of oxalate Grams of oxalate = 0.0017 x 88 Grams of oxalate = 0.150 grams Therefore % oxalate in the product: (0.150 / 0.320) x 100 = 46.9 % From the stoichiometry of the equation it is observed that 1 mole of permanganate react with 5 moles of Iron, thus: Moles of oxalate = 5 (0.00031) = 0.00155 moles Grams of Iron (II) = number of moles x mass of oxalate Grams of Iron (II) = 0.00155 x 56 Grams of Iron (II) = 0.087 grams Therefore % Iron in the product: (0.087 / 0.320) x 100 = 27.19% The mass of water = Total mass of complex (Mass of oxalate + iron (ii)) Mass of water = 0.320 (0.150 + 0.087) = 0.083g Therefore moles = grams / RMM Moles water = 0.083 / 18 Moles water = 0.0046 moles Therefore % water in product: (0.083 / 0.320) x 100 = 25.9% To calculate the empirical formula: Iron Oxalate Water 0.00155 : 0.0017 : 0.0046 0.00155 : 0.00155 : 0.00155 1 : 1 : 3 Thus empirical formula is FeC2O4.3H2O Analysis of products for Iron Oxalate for Potassium trioxalatoferrate (III) trihydrate. The equation taking place in the reaction are: 2MnO4- (aq) + 5C2O42- (aq) + 16H+ (aq) Æ’Â   2Mn2+ (aq) + 10CO2 (g) + 8H2O (l) 5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ Æ’Â   5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + H2O Moles permanganate reacting with oxalate = Concentration of permanganate x Volume of permanganate required: Moles permanganate = 0.02 x (24.5 / 1000) Moles permanganate = 0.00049 moles From the stoichiometry of the equation it is observed that 2 moles of permanganate react with 5 moles of oxalate, thus: Moles of oxalate = 5/2 (0.00049) = 0.00123 moles Grams of oxalate = number of moles x mass of oxalate Grams of oxalate = 0.00123 x 88 Grams of oxalate = 0.108 grams Therefore % oxalate in the product: (0.108 / 0.200) x 100 = 54 % Moles permanganate reacting with iron (III) = Concentration of permanganate x Volume of permanganate required: Moles permanganate = 0.02 x (4.00 / 1000) Moles permanganate = 810-5 moles From the stoichiometry of the equation it is observed that 1 mole of permanganate react with 5 moles of Iron, thus: Moles of oxalate = 5 (810-5) = 0.0004 moles Grams of Iron = number of moles x mass of oxalate Grams of Iron = 0.0004 x 56 Grams of Iron = 0.0224 grams Therefore % Iron in the product: (0.0224 / 0.200) x 100 = 11.20% Discussion: In the first part of the experiment, ferrous ammonium sulphate, also known as Mohrs Salt was treated with warm water and sulphuric acid in order to prevent the formation of rust coloured iron hydroxides and oxides. This was followed by oxalic acid. The oxalate ions replace some or all of the sulphate ligands surrounding the Fe2+ ion and as a result, a yellow precipitate of ferrous oxalate forms. The reaction taking place is as follows: H2C2O4 (aq) + Fe2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l) Æ’Â   3H2O+ (aq) + FeC2O4 (s) In order to oxidise the Fe2+ ion into an Fe3+ ion in ferrous oxalate, hydrogen peroxide, acting as an oxidising agent is added to a solution of ferrous oxalate and potassium oxalate. Temperature control is very crucial in this step due to the fact at high temperatures, hydrogen peroxide can decompose and thus would not be able to oxidise the iron (II) to iron (III) required to prepare the Potassium trioxalatoferrate (III) trihydrate complex. It is important to make sure that all the iron (ii) has been oxidised to iron (iii) due to the fact that since each complex consists of a different number of oxalate ligands, if a mixture of the two complex ions is present, the empirical formula determination would become difficult. The reaction taking place is as follows: 2FeC2O4 (s) + C2O42- (aq) + H2O2 (aq) + 2H3O+ (aq) Æ’Â   4H2O (l) + Fe2(C2O4 )3 (s) When the Fe2(C2O4 )3 precipitate was dissolved, [Fe(C2O4)3]3- forms. This reacts with the potassium ions in solution introduced via the potassium oxalate and forms potassium trioxalatoferrate (III) which is photosensitive and thus must be stored in the dark. In the analysis of the oxalate ion, no indicator is required in the redox titration between permanganate and the oxalate ions due to the fact that at the end point, since potassium permanganate is an oxidising agent, it oxidises the oxalate ions in solution into carbon dioxide and as a result, permanganate is itself reduced to Mn2+ therefore a faint pink colour is observed at the endpoint. The reactions taking place are as follows: 2MnO4- (aq) + 5C2O42- (aq) + 16H+ (aq) Æ’Â   2Mn2+ (aq) + 10CO2 (g) + 8H2O (l) In order to analyse the iron content in the complexes formed, zinc is added followed by heating the solution. Once this was complete, the solution was treated with permanganate in a redox titration similar to the one described previously above. The reaction taking place is as follows: 5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ Æ’Â   5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + H2O Conclusion: This experiment has shown that iron being a transition metal can exist as various oxidation states. These oxidation states can then form a variety of complexes with various ligands. The complexes that are formed can then be analysed using a redox titration in order to determine the percentages of iron and oxalate in the complex. In this experiment, the empirical formula of Iron (II) oxalate was found to be FeC2O4.3H2O and consisted of 46.9 % oxalate, 27.19% Iron (II) and 25.9% water where as the Trioxalatoferrate (III) Trihydrate consisted of 54% oxalate and 11.20% iron (III)

Evaluating An Enthalpy Change That Cannot Be Measured Directly. Essay

Evaluating An Enthalpy Change That Cannot Be Measured Directly. Dr. Watson. Introduction. We were told that sodium hydrogencarbonate decomposes on heating to give sodium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide as shown in the equation below:-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2NaHCO3(s)--------> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) = DeltaH1 This was given as deltaH1 and we had to calculate as part of the experiment. This however cannot be measured directly, but can be found using the enthalpy changes from two other reactions. These being that of sodium hydrogencarbonate and hydrochloric acid and also sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid. We were given a list of instructions in how to carry out the experiment, which are given later. List of Apparatus Used. 1 x 500ml Beaker. 1 x Thermometer(-10 to 50oC). 1 x Polystyrene Cup. 1 x Weighing Balance. 1 x Weighing Bottle. 10 grams of Sodium Hydrogencarbonate. 10 grams of Sodium Carbonate. A bottle of 2 molar HCL. Diagram. Method. Three grams of sodium hydrogen carbonate was weighted out accurately using a weighting bottle and a balance. Then thirty centimetres cubed of 2 molar HCL was measured using a measuring cylinder. The acid was then placed into the polystyrene cup and its temperature was taken and recorded using the thermometer. The pre-weighted sodium hydrogencarbonate was then added to the solution, and the final temperature was recorded. The contents of the cup were then emptied out and the cup was washed out with wate...

Othellos Fainting as a Point of No Return :: Free Essays Online

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The International Criminal Court was formally established 1 July 2002. â€Å"The statue which exercises jurisdiction over four crimes – genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and crimes of aggression (applicable only after a further provision defining aggression and conditions of jurisdiction is adopted).† (Toon, 2004: 1). The ICC is considered to be a court that is a last resort. It was implemented for heinous crimes that are committed to be used when states (countries such as Southeast Asia) are not willing or not able to provide justice for such crimes to the victims. To date, Southeast Asia has only two of their eleven states that have implemented the ICC which are Cambodia and Timor – Leste. Third world countries have a hard time with prioritizing their affairs. With economic hardships, terrorism, and socio-political taking the precedence over justice for individuals that are victims of the above crimes. There are many questions that have been established in regards to why countries, South East Asia in particular have not become part of the ICC. The author, Valeriane Toon, presents to her readers some questions as to why Southeast Asia has not accepted the International Criminal Court. â€Å"Is it the fear of setting a precedent by consenting to the subjugation of territorial integrity on ethical grounds, which could culminate in a spontaneous compromise of state sovereignty once this, is ensconced into customary law, as articulated by numerous major powers? Or is it simply a rejection of terms propounded by the Statue† (Toon, 2004: 1)? The other main question that cannot be overlooked is how much influence does the United States may have over the governments of Southeast Asia† (Toon, 2004: 1)? Though Toon provides o... ...ow are they able to provide justice when (unfortunately) justice cost money. Toon says that, â€Å"Certain segments of the government are not in favor of the ICC, conscious that it can curb the extent of their liberty and swiftness in the execution of national policies (Toon, 2004: 6). However, the logical conclusion of this would be to amend such factors that infringe on the governments’ ability to provide swift justice. Works Cited Toon, Valeriane. â€Å"International criminal court: reservation of non-state parties in southeast Asia.† Contemporary Southeast Asia 26.2 (2004), 218+. Berman, Franklin. â€Å"The International Criminal Court†, paper presented at the Fourth International Law Seminar, Singapore, 2 September 2000. â€Å"Coalition for the international Criminal Court, Spring Semester 2012, http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/irrc_861_wenqi.pdf.